Introduction: Sanskrit language has scripts or alphabets for writing,
and grammatical rules for sentence formation, just like any other language (English for example). In this
chapter we will get an overview of this. The details with their grammatical rules will be covered in
subsequent chapters.
Alphabets & Their Classification: In Sanskrit language Devanagari Script is the mostly used script for writing. Most of the Sanskrit literature are in this script. Following is the list of the alphabets in their correct order.
अ
a |
आ
aa |
इ
i |
ई
ii |
उ
u |
ऊ
uu |
ऋ
RRi |
ॠ
RRI |
ए
e |
ऐ
ai |
ओ
o |
औ
au |
|
क
k |
ख
kh |
ग
g |
घ
gh |
ङ
N^ |
च
ch |
छ
chh |
ज
j |
झ
jh |
ञ
JN |
ट
T |
ठ
Th |
ड
D |
ढ
Dh |
ण
N |
त
t |
थ
th |
द
d |
ध
dh |
न
n |
प
p |
फ
ph |
ब
b |
भ
bh |
म
m |
य
y |
र
r |
ल
l |
व
v |
श
sh |
ष
Sh |
स
s |
ह
h |
क्ष
ksh |
ज्ञ
dny |
All these alphabets are classified into two major groups i.e.,
-
Vowels or स्वरवर्ण (svaravarNa): Alphabets starting from अ (a)
till औ (au) are the vowels. These are further classified into ह्रस्व (hrasva) and दीर्घ (diirgha).
The दीर्घ (diirgha) are pronounced double the length (or time) of ह्रस्व (hrasva).
ह्रस्व
hrasva |
अ
a |
आ
aa |
इ
i |
उ
u |
ए
e |
ऐ
ai |
ओ
o |
औ
au
|
दीर्घ
diirgha |
ई
ii |
ऊ
uu |
ऋ
RRi |
ॠ
RRI |
|
|
|
|
-
Consonants or व्यञ्जनवर्ण (vyaJNjanavarNa): Alphabets starting
from क (k) till ज्ञ (dny) are the consonants. Some of the consonants are further classified into
different groups called वर्ग (varga). Following table has this classification. Some of the
gramatical rules for Euphonic Combination or सन्धि (sandhi) and Compound Words
or समास (samaasa) are based on these वर्ग (varga).
कवर्ग
kavarga |
क
k |
ख
kh |
ग
g |
घ
gh |
ङ
N^ |
चवर्ग
chaavarga |
च
ch |
छ
chh |
ज
j |
झ
jh |
ञ
JN |
टवर्ग
Taavarga |
ट
T |
ठ
Th |
ड
D |
ढ
Dh |
ण
N |
तवर्ग
tavarga |
त
t |
थ
th |
द
d |
ध
dh |
न
n |
पवर्ग
pavarga |
प
p |
फ
ph |
ब
b |
भ
bh |
म
m |
We will refere these classifications, while covering the
Euphonic Combination
or सन्धि (sandhi) and
Compound Words or समास (samaasa).
Sentence Formation Overview:
In Sanskrit just like any other language (English for example) a sentence
is made of different elements. The elements are "Subject", "Object", and "Verb". A
sentence may or may not have an Object in it.
Lets study the following English sentence to understand these basic elements better.
The boy is reading a book.
In the sentence "boy" is the "Subject", "reading" is "Verb" and the "book" is the "Object".
The boy is reading a book.
--- ------- -----
| | |
Subject Verb Object
- If we ask the question "who is reading?", the answer that comes is "the boy". So,
the "boy" here is the Subject. It is also called the "Noun".
- The answer that comes in response to question "what is the boy doing?" is "reading".
The "reading" here is the "Verb".
- Similarly the answer to "what is the boy reading?" is "book". The "book" becomes
the "Object".
Now study the following statement.
The boy is laughing.
In the sentence "boy" is the "Subject", "laughing" is "Verb". But, there is no "Object" in this sentence.
The boy is laughing.
--- -------
| |
Subject Verb
- If we ask the question "what is the boy laughing?", no answer comes from this.
So, laughing becomes an "Intranstive Verb".
- However in the first sentence "what is the boy reading?" gives answer "book".
In this case the "reading" becomes a "Transitive Verb".
Now that we have understood the basic elements of a sentence, we will begin
with more details of Sanskrit language.
In Sanskrit:
- Subject is called -> कर्ता / kartaa
- Object is called -> कर्म / karma
- Verb is called -> क्रिया / kriyaa
- Transitive Verb is called -> सकर्मक / sakarmaka
- Intransitive Verb is called -> अकर्मक / akarmaka
So, in the above statements:
The boy is reading a book.
--- ------- -----
| | |
Subject Verb Object
| | |
कर्ता/kartaa क्रिया/kriyaa(सकर्मक / sakarmaka) कर्म/karma
The boy is laughing.
--- -------
| |
Subject Verb
| |
कर्ता/kartaa क्रिया/kriyaa (अकर्मक / akarmaka)
Words & Their Classification: In any language a sentence is
madeup of multiple words composed in a well defined structure giving a sensible meaning to the
sentence. These words can be categorised into three different types viz.,
Besides the above classifications nouns and verbs can also be part of following categories
with minor derivations like addition of 'ility', 'ily', 'tion', 'ing' etc., as well as based
on their usage and grammatical rules:
In Sanskrit also words are classified into similar categories. Following is a
representation of the important classifications. We can see the classification is
almost same as any other language. Each classification has been described in the
coming chapters.
|--------------- Noun Root (शब्द / shabda)
| |
| |
| --------------------------------
| | |
| सुवन्तपद तद्धितपद
| suvantapada taddhitapada
| |
| |
| -----------------------------------------------
| | | |
| Masculine Feminine Neuter
| पुलिङ्ग स्त्रीलिङ्ग नपुङ्सकलिन्ग
| puliN^ga striiliN^ga napuN^sakalinga
Word (पद / pada) ----|
|
|--------------- Verb Root (धातु / dhaatu)
| |
| |
| --------------------------------------------------------------
| | | | | | |
| तिङतपद कृदन्तपद णिजन्त सन्नन्त यङ्न्त नामाधातु
| tiN^atapada kRRidantapada Nijanta sannanta yaN^nta naamadhaatu
| |
| |
| ------------------------------------------------------------
| | | |
| परस्मैपदी आत्मनेपदी उभयपदी
| parasmaipadii aatmanepadii ubhayapadii
|
|
|--------------- Indeclinable (अव्यय / avyaya)
|
|
----------------------------------------
| | |
अव्यय उपसर्ग निपात
avyaya upasarga nipaata
Nouns (शब्द / shabda):
Noun is the word that represents someone or something in a sentence. Noun normally refers to person,
place, thing, state or quality etc. A noun is the only word that can be used as the subject or object
for a verb.
Noun in Sanskrit is called
शब्द (shabda) or
noun-root. It is also called कर्तृपद (kartRRipada). Noun can be classified into
सुवन्तपद (suvantapada) and तद्धितपद (taddhitapada).
-
सुवन्तपद (suvantapada): This classification is based on the gender,
number and case of the noun. The noun-forms are used to express something or someone etc.
सुवन्तपद or suvantapada meaning - words ending with सुप् (sup) suffix.
In this classification:
- Nouns are categorised into three different "genders" (लिङ्ग / liN^ga) viz.,
"masculine" (पुंलिङ्ग / pu.nliN^ga), "feminine" (स्त्रीलिङ्ग / striiliN^ga) and
"neuter" (नपुंसकलिङ्ग / napu.nsakaliN^ga).
- Each noun also has three "numbers" (वचन / vachana) and 7 "cases" (विभक्ति / vibhakti).
Each noun has a different derivation based on the "number" and "case". Unlike other languages, in
Sanskrit the noun has its different forms built into itself. The "noun base" is called शब्द (shabda)
and the "derived noun forms" are called शब्दरुप (shabdarupa). So, in the previous statement बालक is
the "base" (शब्द / shabda) of noun "BOY" and बालकः is one of the derived
noun forms (शब्दरुप / shabdarupa).
-
तद्धितपद (taddhitapada): In this classification special
suffixes are added to the noun to get noun forms used as - subject, adjectives, indeclinable etc.
We will start with first 2 cases and all three numbers of सुवन्तपद (suvantapada) BOY (बालक / baalaka)
and GIRL (वाला / vaalaa) शब्द / shabda. Once we know how to use noun forms (शब्दरुप / shabdarupa) in
sentences, we will cover all the cases and their usage rules.
| Boy / बालक / baalaka (Masculine / पुंलिङ्ग / pu.nliN^ga) |
|---|
Case
विभक्ति / vibhakti |
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
स्विवचन / dvivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Nominative (Subject)
प्रथमा / prathamaa |
बालकः / baalakaH
(the boy) |
बालकौ / baalakau
(two boys) |
बालकाः / baalakaaH
(the boys) |
Accusative (Object)
द्वितीया / dvitiiyaa |
बालकम् / baalakam
(to the boy) |
बालकौ / balakau
(to two boys) |
बालकान् / baalakaan
(to the boys) |
| Girl / बाला / baalaa (Femenine / स्त्रीलिङ्ग / striiliN^ga) |
|---|
Case
विभक्ति / vibhakti |
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
स्विवचन / dvivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Nominative (Subject)
प्रथमा / prathamaa |
बाला / baalaa
(the girl) |
बाले / baale
(two girls) |
बालाः / baalaaH
(the girls) |
Accusative (Object)
द्वितीया / dvitiiyaa |
बालाम् / baalaam
(to the girl) |
बाले / balae
(to two girls) |
बालाः / baalaaH
(to the girls) |
Examples of noun form (शब्दरुप / shabdarupa):
- The boy -> बालकः / baalakaH
- Many boys -> बालकाः / baalakaaH
- To the boy -> बालकम् / baalakam
- To the boys -> बालकान् / baalakaan
- The girl -> बाला / baalaa
- Many girls -> बालाः / baalaaH
- To the girl -> बालाम् / baalaam
- To the girls -> बालाः / baalaaH
The complete noun form (शब्दरुप / shabdarupa) for बालक शब्द (baalaka shabda) will have 7 different forms
for each number. The singular forms include "
the boy", "
to the boy",
"
by the boy", "
for/to the boy", "
from the boy",
"
of the boy", and "
in the boy". Besides these 7 forms an additional
vocative ("
O! boy") case is also their.
All these we will study in detail in coming chapters. The complete शब्दरुप (shabdarupa) is
listed in
Chapter 13.
Followings are few more nouns (शब्दरुप / shabdarupa). We will use these in sentences later in this chapter.
| School / विद्यालय / vidyaalaya (Masculine / पुंलिङ्ग / pu.nliN^ga) |
|---|
Case
विभक्ति / vibhakti |
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
स्विवचन / dvivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Nominative
प्रथमा / prathamaa |
विद्यालयः / vidyaalayaH |
विद्यालयौ / vidyaalayau |
विद्यालयाः / vidyaalayaaH |
Accusative
द्वितीया / dvitiiyaa |
विद्यालयम् / vidyaalayam |
विद्यालयौ / vidyaalayau |
विद्यालयान् / vidyaalayaan |
| Book / पुस्तक / pustaka (Nuter / नपुंसकलिङ्ग / napu.nsakaliN^ga) |
|---|
Case
विभक्ति / vibhakti |
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
स्विवचन / dvivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Nominative
प्रथमा / prathamaa |
पुस्तकम् / pustakam |
पुस्तके / pustake |
पुस्तकानि / pustakaani |
Accusative
द्वितीया / dvitiiyaa |
पुस्तकम् / pustakam |
पुस्तके / pustake |
पुस्तकानि / pustakaani |
| *** In अकारान्त / akaaraanta nuter (नपुंसकलिङ्ग / napu.nsakaliN^ga), both Nominative and Accusative cases have the same form. |
| Me / अस्मद् / asmad (All Genders / त्रिलिङ्गक / triliN^gaka) |
|---|
Case
विभक्ति / vibhakti |
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
स्विवचन / dvivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Nominative
प्रथमा / prathamaa |
अहम् / aham |
आवाम् / aavaam |
वयम् / vayam |
Accusative
द्वितीया / dvitiiyaa |
माम् / maam
मा / maa |
आवाम् / aavaam
नौ / nau |
अस्मान् / asmaan
नः / naH |
| You / युस्मद् / yusmad (All Genders / त्रिलिङ्गक / triliN^gaka) |
Case
विभक्ति / vibhakti |
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
स्विवचन / dvivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Nominative
प्रथमा / prathamaa |
त्वम् / tvam |
युवाम् / yuvaam |
यूयम् / yuuyam |
Accusative
द्वितीया / dvitiiyaa |
त्वाम् / tvaam
त्वा / tvaa |
युवाम् / yuvaam
वाम् / vaam |
युष्मान् / yuShmaan
वः / vaH |
Pronouns (सर्वनाम पद / sarvanaama pada): Words like he, she, this,
that, these etc., are called pronoun. Pronouns in Sanskrit are called सर्वनाम पद (sarvanaama pada).
The rules for pronouns are exactly same as the nouns (शब्द / shabda).
Verb (धातु / dhaatu):
Verb normally refers to action, state, existence or occurrence etc.
Verb in Sanskrit is called धातु (dhaatu) or verb root. It is also known as क्रियापद (kriyaapada).
It can be classified into तिङतपद (tiN^atapada) and कृदन्तपद (kRRidantapada).
-
तिङतपद (tiN^atapada): This classification is based on the
tense and mood of the verb. The verb-forms are used as normal verbs to express some action
or state etc. तिङतपद or tiN^atapada meaning - words ending with तिप् (tip) suffix. In this
classification:
- Each Verb can have any of the 10 tenses (लकार / lakaara). Howver only 5 are
enough to use Sanskrit in daily life.
- Each verb can be of three different numbers, Singular (एकवचन / ekavachana),
Dual (द्वीवचन / dviivachana) and Plural (बहुवचन / bahuvachana).
- Each verb can be of three persons viz., Third (प्रथम / prathama),
Second (मध्यम / madhyama) and First (उत्तम / uttama).
- Each verb can belong to categories परस्मैपदी (parasmaipadii),
आत्मनेपदी (aatmanepadii) or उभयपदी (ubhayapadii). Verbs of परस्मैपदी (parasmaipadii)
category represent 'action whose result is for others'. आत्मनेपदी (aatmanepadii)
represents 'action whose result is for self', and उभयपदी (ubhayapadii) represents
'action whose result is both for others and self'.
Just like noun (शब्द / shabda), each verb (धातु / dhaatu) also has different derivations based on the
"tense", "number' and "person". This is called "verb form" (धातुरुप / dhaaturupa). The verb-forms differ
based on this category. The "root" of a verb is called धातु (dhaatu). धातु (dhaatu) does not have any "gender".
-
कृदन्तपद (kRRidantapada): In this classification special suffixes
are added to the verb to get verb-forms used as - subject, pronoun, adjectives, indeclinable etc.
Followings are the तिङतपद (tiN^atapada)
verb-forms (धातुरुप / dhaatutupa) of READ (पठ् / paTH) धातु (dhaatu)
and GO (गम् / gam) धातु (dhaatu) in present tense (लट्लकार / laTlakaara). Once we are acquainted with
the verb usage in a sentence, we will cover all other different forms.
| Read / पठ् / paTh |
| Person / पुरुष / puruSha |
Number / वचन / vachana |
|
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
द्वीवचन / dviivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Third
प्रथम / prathama |
पठति / paThati
(is reading) |
पठतः / paThataH
(both are reading) |
पठन्ति / paThanti
(many are reading) |
Second
मध्यम / madhyama |
पठसि / paThasi
(you are reading) |
पठथः / paThathaH
(you two are reading) |
पठथ / paThatha
(you all reading) |
First
उत्तम / uttama |
पठामि / paThaami
(i am reading) |
पठावः / paThaavaH
(both of us reading) |
पठामः / paThaamaH
(all of us reading) |
| Go / गम् / gam |
| Person / पुरुष / puruSha |
Number / वचन / vachana |
|
Singular
एकवचन / ekavachana |
Dual
द्वीवचन / dviivachana |
Plural
बहुवचन / bahuvachana |
Third
प्रथम / prathama |
गच्छति / gachchhati
(is going) |
गच्छतः / gachchhataH
(both are going) |
गच्छन्ति / gachchhanti
(many are going) |
Second
मध्यम / madhyama |
गच्छसि / gachchhasi
(you are going) |
गच्छथः / gachchhathaH
(you two are going) |
गच्छथ / gachchhatha
(you all are going) |
First
उत्तम / uttama |
गच्छामि / gachchhaami
(i am going) |
गच्छावः / gachchhaavaH
(both of us going) |
गच्छामः / gachchhaamaH
(all of us going) |
Lets study a sample use of shabdarupa and dhaaturupa using the above. These will help in learning the sentence
formation rules.
the boy is reading - बालकः पठति / baalakaH paThati
the boys are reading - बालकाः पठन्ति / baalakaaH paThanti
the girl is reading - बाला पठति / baala paThati
the girls are reading - बालाः पठन्ति / baalaaH paThanti
you are reading - त्वं पठसि / tvam paThasi
you all are reading - युयं पठथ / yuyam paThata
i am reading - अहं पठामि / aham paThaami
we are reading - वयं पठामः / vayam paThaamaH
All the sentences above have the "Subject" (कर्ता / kartaa) and a "Verb" (क्रिया / kriyaa). In all the
sentences, the number (वचन / vachana) and person (पुरुष / puruSha) of the "Verb" (क्रिया / kriyaa) match
number (वचन / vachana) and person (पुरुष / puruSha) of the "Subject" (कर्ता / kartaa).
Say in the sentence "the boy is reading" (बालकः पठति / baalakaH paThati), the "boy" (बालकः / baalakaH) is in third
person singular (प्रथपपुरुष एकवचन / prathamapuruSha ekavachana). Similarly the "Verb" (क्रिया / kriyaa) is also in
third person singular (प्रथपपुरुष एकवचन / prathamapuruSha ekavachana).
However the verb does not change if the gender of the "Subject" change. This can be seen in the sentence
"the girl is reading" (बाला पठति / baalaa paThati).
Rule 1: The verb (धातु / dhaatu) always follows number (वचन / vachana) and person (पुरुष / puruSha)
of the noun (शब्द / shabda).
Rule 2: The verb (धातु / dhaatu) remains same irrespective of the gender (लिङ्ग / liN^ga) of the
"Subject" (कर्ता / kartaa).
Rule 3: The verb form (धातुरुप / dhaaturupa) is always in first person (उत्तमपुरुष / uttamapuruSha), if the noun used is अस्मद् शब्द (asmad shabda). The verb form (धातुरुप / dhaaturupa) is always in second person (मध्यमपुरुष / madhyamapuruSha), if the noun used is युस्मद् शब्द (yusmad shabda). All other nouns will always be in third person (प्रथमपुरुष / prathamapuruSha).
Indeclinable (अव्ययपद / avyayapada): Indeclinable in Sanskrit is called
अव्ययपद (avyayapada). Unlike shabdarupa and dhaaturupa अव्ययपद / avyayapada do not change in its form. It
remains same irrespective of gender, number, person and tense. Followings are few examples:
kutra / कुत्र - where
atra / कुत्र - here
tatra / तत्र - there
api / अपि - too
Few sample statements using indeclinable (अव्ययपद / avyayapada):
where is the boy going - बालकः कुत्र गच्छति / baalakaH kutra gachchhati
the boy is going there - बालकः तत्र गच्छति / baalakaH tatra gachchhati
where are the boys going - बालकाः कुत्र गच्छन्ति / baalakaaH kutra gachchhanti
the boys are going there - बालकाः तत्र गच्छन्ति / baalakaaH tatra gachchhanti
Note that the अव्ययपद (avyayapada) remains the same irrespective of the number, and person of
the "Subject" (कर्ता / kartaa).
Rule 4: Indeclinables (अव्ययपद / avyayapada) never change in form and remain same irrespective of the
person and number of the "Subject" (कर्ता /kartaa).
Adjective (विशेषण / visheShaNa): Adjective is the word that expresses
an attribute or property of something or someone. Only nouns can be used adjectives. In Sanskrit it is
called विशेषण (visheShaNa). Adjective always follows the gender (लिङ्ग / liN^ga) and number (वचन / vachana)
of the subject or the word for which it is an adjective. Followings are few examples:
blue sky - निलः आकाशः / nilaH aakaashaH
white cloud - स्वेतः मेघः / svetaH meghaH
In above sentences the words blue and white represent an attribute of sky and cloud. So, these
are adjectives for the words sky and cloud respectively.
Voice (वाच्य / vaachya): In Sanskrit sentence can be in any of
the following three voices. 'Impersonal Voice' is specific to Sanskrit language only and this
sentence formation is normally not seen in other languages like English.
1. Active voice or कर्तृवाच्य (kartRRI vaachya).
2. Passive voice or कर्मवाच्य (karma vaachya).
3. Impersonal voice or भाववाच्य (bhava vaachya).
Now that we know the basics of Sanskrit sentence formation, their different elements, classification
of alphabets and words, we will study the rules in detail in subsequent chapters.